COMMUNICATION:THE ENGLISH FUNCTIONS:
For Students:
These expressions in their variety are meant to help you enrich your spoken and written repertoire. It is not really a handicap to learn some of them by heart on condition that you frequently use them while talking to your classmates or friends or even some English-speaking people. Gradually those expressions become yours and you will use them normally and naturally. The more you practice them, the better you master them. Take it for granted that the language is first and foremost a means of communication. The more you practise it the more you become perfect. Finally, remember that the world would understand and appreciate what you say if you said it in the right way.
GIVING OPINION
• In my opinion the consequences of global warming will be fatal.
• As far as I'm concerned love is the noblest feeling.
• From my point of view, poverty could be fought with solidarity.
• As I see it, our planet is dying.
• I think / reckon / presume / gather it will get worse with time.
• In my view immigration is caused by unemployment. .
• It seems to me that democracy is the solution for developing countries.
• I believe politics should be more human...
• To my mind cloning should be restricted.
• According to me Euthanasia should be banned.
• As for me they like to be at top of the world.
Agreeing with an opinion :
• My view about this is positive.
• I agree with this idea.
• I agree completely with this idea.
• I can't agree more.
• I agree.
• This idea is absolutely right.
• I couldn't agree more on this.
Partial agreement or polite disagreement
• I agree partially with this idea.
• This idea is partially right.
• I see what you mean, but some developed countries are helpful.
• That's one way of looking at it, but we should avoid over generalisation.
• I see your point, but technology is not autonomous.
• I agree with you, but developing countries should stop wars.
• I think this idea is possible, but rich countries bear some responsibility in those wars.
• I'm not sure you're right there.
• I'm not sure that I agree with this idea.
Disagreeing with an opinion
•I think it is a bad idea.
• I'm afraid I can't agree with this idea.
• I'm afraid I entirely disagree with you.
• I think this idea is impossible.
• I guess this idea is impractical.
• I see that this idea is bad.
• I think it is a bad idea.
• I don't agree with this idea.
• I suppose this idea cannot be implemented.
A D V I C E:
Random Examples
• If I were you, I wouldn’t buy this old computer.
• Why don't you stay at home and watch TV?
• You'd better go to bed early.
• You ought to revise your lessons regularly.
• If you take my advice, you'll tell your parents the truth.
• You should drive slowly in town.
• I advise you to do the quiz again and again.
Declining to give advice:
• I don't know what to advise, I'm afraid.
• I wish I could suggest something, but I can't.
• I wish I could help.
• I'm afraid I can't really help you. I have the same problem myself.
Making suggestions
• Let’s revise our lessons.
• What about going to the cinema tonight?
• How about playing cards?
• Why don't we do our homework?
• Couldn't we invite your grandmother to our party?
• Shall we have a walk along the river?
• What would you say to a cup of coffee?
• Don't you think it is a good idea to watch TV?
• Does it matter if we use your car?
Accepting a suggestion:
• Ok. Yes, let's.
• Yes, I'd like to
• Yes, I'd love to.
• What a good idea!
• Why not?
• Yes, with pleasure.
• Yes, I feel like taking a walk.
Refusing a suggestion:
• No, let's not.
• No, I'd rather not.
• I don't feel like it.
• What an awful idea!
Comma rules
Comma rules
We use commas in the following situations:
1. Items in series:
surprised, pleased, happy
Eat, drink and be merry.
2. Co-ordinate Adjectives:
a large, ugly snake
3. Nouns in Direct Address:
Please, Mum, can I go out?
Sally, what are we going to have?
4. Addresses:
Sherlock Holmes lived at 221b Baker Street, London.
5. Dates
I was born on November 23, 1975.
6. Interrupters:
Few people, however, have darkroom facilities for developing their own films.
7. Appositives and Non-restrictive clauses:
Mary, who used to work in London, sent me a letter.
8. Compound Sentences:
Americans use the word schedule instead of timetable, but Canadians usually use timetable.
Use a semi-colon when there is no conjunction:
Americans use the word schedule instead of timetable; Canadians usually use timetable.
9. Introductory Elements - adverbial clauses, participial phrases, prepositional phrases followed by an infinitive:
If someone makes a mistake, no one will know who did it!
Thinking he had drowned, we returned to our base.
No comma:
No one will know who did it if someone makes a mistake.
10. Quotations:
"I can take it home for dog," said the boy.
"I will come," she said, "when I am ready."
Linking words
Linking words
1. Narrating
2. Contrast
3. Addiion
4. Expressing cause and effect
5. Expressing purpose
6. Giving examples
7. Summing up/Concluding
1. Narrating -
and
first (of all)
at first
at the beginning
in the beginning
then
next
before
after
after that
afterwards
when
while
soon
immediately
once
suddenly
as soon as
no sooner ... than ...
hardly ... when ...
finally
eventually
at the end
in the end
at last
2. Contrasting
but
however
although
despite
in spite of
nevertheless
on the contrary
on the one hand
on the other hand
whereas
while
for one thing
in contrast
3. Adding
also
as well as
besides
moreover
furthermore
what is more
in addition
not only ... but also ...
4. Expressing cause and result
because
because of
so
so ... that ...
such a ... that ...
as
since
therefore
thus
as a result
this is why
consequently
for this reason
too ... for/to ...
not enough ... for/to ...
due to
owing to
5. Expressing purpose
to
so as to
in order to
so that
for
6. Giving examples
for example
for instance
such as
7. Summing up/Concluding
all in all
overall
generally
in conclussion
on the whole
in the main
HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
The Mixing Starts
When Julius Caesar, later to be Roman Emperor, invaded Britain in BC 54-5, the 'Celtic' tribes lived in the British Isles. Their Celtic languages still survive as 'Gaelic' in Scotland & Ireland, 'Welsh', in Wales, and 'Manx' in the Isle of Man, as well as 'Breton' in France. The Romans brought Latin to Britain, which was part of the Roman Empire for over 400 years. But early English did not develop mainly from Latin. So it is unlike French, Spanish and Italian, which did come directly from Latin. 'Early English' was the language of tribes who invaded from the East, from what is now Germany. They spoke different dialects of a 'Germanic' language, from which modern German developed. This explains why German and English are often similar, as many of their words developed from the same original language. In 878 AD, the Vikings invaded Britain from Scandinavia, bringing with them the Norse language, though this was similar to the old English or Anglo-Saxon language already used. The dramatic arrival of the Norman army from France, led by King William the Conqueror in 1066, and the defeat of the English King Harold at the Battle of Hastings, brought very big changes to English life. The Normans brought with them the Old French language, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business class.
No More Invasions
By about 1200, the Kingdoms of England and France had ceased to be one unit. The use of Old English came back, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English, the language of the poet Chaucer (about 1340-1400). He has been called the greatest English poet before Shakespeare. It is difficult for even English-speakers to read and understand his writings well. Can you understand these lines: "Whan that Aprille with his shoures swote The droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote..." In modern English this is: "When April with his sweet showers has struck to the roots the dryness of March.." ie, when the April showers of rain have gone right down to the roots of plants which have been dried up during March! This 'Middle English' was very different in different parts of the country, and of course travel was limited in those days. But another big revolution was coming - the printing press. Just as radio, television, video, and computers, have changed communication in our time, so did printing after about 1500 AD. Now there was a common language in print, as well as access to the old languages of Latin and Greek.
Shakespeare
Now came the 'Renaissance' in Europe - a time of great advance of learning and culture. By this time, English was not very different from the English used today. And the most famous person to write in English in this period was William Shakespeare (1564-1616). His insight into human nature, and his gift for using words, make him possibly the most famous playwright of all time! Having in his hands such a new rich language must have helped him too. Shakespeare gave the English language many phrases and sayings, which English speakers still use every day. Often, they do not realise these words came from Shakespeare's plays or poems! Do you know some of these?: 'A rose by any other name would smell as sweet' "If music be the food of love, play on and give me excess." (12th Night) "Of one who loved not wisely but too well." (Othello) "All our yesterdays.." "Out, out brief candle." (MacBeth) "To be or not to be......"
The Best seller of all time
At almost the same time as Shakespeare, came the printing of a book which has had an even greater effect on society and culture - the 'Authorised' or 'King James' translation of the Bible in 1611. For almost the first time, anyone who could read had access to the Bible in their own language, and in words which were easily understood. The beauty of the language in this translation has never been equalled. Though today, because language has changed, it is difficult in places to understand, even for native English speakers, many people still use it. And like Shakespeare, many phrases and quotations from it have become part of the English language. People often use them without knowing they come from the Bible. For example: 'turn the other cheek' 'go a second mile' 'Straight and narrow' 'A Job's comforter' 'Don't cast your pearls before swine' 'the love of money is the root of all evil'
Modern English
Since the time of Shakespeare, English has continued to change. Settlers from Britain moved across the world - to the USA, Australia, New Zealand, India, Asia and Africa, and in each place, the language changed and developed, and took in words from other local languages. For example, 'kangaroo' and 'boomerang' are native Australian Aborigine words, 'juggernaut' and 'turban' came from India. With the increase in communication, travel, radio and television, all these different types of English have mixed. So in Britain now, because of American and Australian TV programming, we use many parts of Australian and American English. And words from many other languages - French, German, Spanish, Arabic, even Nepali - have been borrowed. So English continues to change and develop, with hundreds of new words arriving every year. For better or worse, it has truly become the world's international language.It has become the language of science, air traffic control, the world of computers, and most of the Internet. And in many countries, where there are other competing languages and people groups, English has been chosen as a common second language. This has happened in Nigeria and Ghana. This may not seem fair to other important and valuable languages which are also international! For example, those of us who know and love France, realise that the French regret the way their language may not be so much of an international language as it used to be. And it is sad that English people are often lazy, and don't bother to learn other languages! So, for many jobs and situations, English has become an essential gateway. If you are learning it - best wishes and we hope you enjoy it!
What Methodology for successful teaching : ESA as an example
Generally, the term “method” in its pedagogical meaning refers to “an over all plan for the orderly presentation of language material, no part of which contradicts, and all of which is based upon, the selected approach. A method is procedural”[1]
In fact there are plenty of methodologies in teaching English as a foreign language literature; each approach has a particular practical method. Besides, in preparing this paper we have met many teachers in different private schools in Agadir and we have attended their lessons in English classes in which they show high quality teaching and effective competence in English courses instruction and considerable experience in class management. Unfortunately we have discovered according to questionnaires that some of these teachers can not defend their methods theoretically because they lack of a theoretical data about this issue, this fact motivate us to investigate this question and present one of the most strategies in EFL teaching among the world.
This highly considerable strategy is called E.S.A which is developed by Jermy Harmer who is one of the most important pedagogists among the world. Harmer wrote many books and researches which becomes one of the most important contributions in the improvement of this field.
a) What is E.S.A?
Every lesson contains different stages. Lessons can focus on grammar, vocabulary, reading or writing. They may consist of listening or speaking. These different courses and subjects can be presented as an introducing of new language items or as a revision of a past lesson. Accordingly, the teacher is asked to indicate the aims to be achieved at the end of a particular lesson.
In other hand, students should be motivated and interested in a language lesson and enjoy what they are studying to make progress and learn faster. This significant aim can not be achieved without clear methodology and careful planning. The E.S.A answers this question which refers to:
ENGAGE STUDY ACTIVATE
These three elements should be present in each successful instruction and learning.
ü E = Engage:
It is important to engage students, this means getting students interested in the subject in the class, in the language point and hopefully enjoying what they are doing. But why is this important? After all, you may feel that students come to school to learn not to be entertained!
“If students are engaged, if they are genuinely involved in what is going on, the chances are that they are going to learn are awful lot better because they are not just doing what they have to do because they are in school”.[2]
Engaging student in the teaching- learning process of each lesson is important for effective learning. Learners must not be a controller of the class but its basic profession is to this idea by saying “you can not teach people anything but you can help them only to discover things in themselves”
ü S = Study:
In any lesson, students usually need something to study. In an English teaching lesson there needs to be some language focus for the class. Students need to be introduced systemically to the way that English is put together. The study element of a lesson could focus on any aspect of language, such a grammar or vocabulary and pronunciation. A study stage does not have to be now language input; it could also cover revision and extension of previously taught material.
ü A=Activate:
Simply telling students about the language is not usually to help them to learn it. In an activate stage the students are given tasks, normally writing or speaking activities which students to use only the language they are studying that day, but also other language that they are learnt.
There are some reasons why it is important to let students have his kind of practice:
· - It gives students the chance to rehearse English, as if they were doing it in the real world but is the style environment of the classroom.
· - Some theories of language learning suggest that by giving students this kind of practise. It helps them to “switch” language they have been studying, into language which they can use instinctively without having to think about it.
· - These kinds of activities are often fun for students. As we have mentioned before, providing an enjoyable classroom experience for students helps the learning process.
· - This kind of activity, because it does not restrict students, helps the teacher to assess how well the class is progressing.
· - providing suitable tasks which learners can achieve using lots of different language has a positive motivational effect on students motivated students tend to learn better.
E.S.A, engage, study and activate are three important elements for each effective lesson, they give the teacher the ability to organize the content of his courses, and present his lesson logically to learners. Motivation comes at the first stage (Engage) then studying (study) of precise examples and rules of a particular linguistic phenomenon (verb to be for example). Then assessment comes at the end (activate) in which students show their understanding of the content whereas, the teacher examines.
[1] http//benlayouni.tripond.com
[2] Jermy Harmer. How to teach English. London
1- what is CBA??
In the year 2003, the Moroccan government started a general reform in the field of education and training in order to improve of the national school level which declared to be one of the most important strategic sectors that the whole policy of the country will be based on, especially, in the globalized economy, this latter in which a harsh competition takes place.
After decades of the implementation of the objectives- centered approach and after the assessment of its drawbacks in the national and international level the ministry of education, in a transitional step has adopted what is called « competency- based approach ». In fact, this pedagogy has many characteristics on which I’m going to shed some light after giving some definitions of the most important terms of this method.
First of all, what does the word « approach » mean? I’ll not offer its meaning literally because it is self explanatory, but the focus will be on its pedagogical concept; the term approach refers to “theories about the nature of language and language learning and it is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning, in one word, approach is axiomatic. In fact, there are a lot of approaches and theories which are used by teachers and experts in both classes and researches”.
For example, the behavioral approach which guided the educational psychology through the first half of the twentieth century. It’s famous theoretical leaders are B.F skinner (1938) and Thorndike.
This approach was a teacher- centered approach so it neglected the active role of the student in the learning task by neglecting the psychological and emotional differences of students.
In fact, objectives-driven curricula were heavily criticized according to David Nunan (2002) “criticisms included the idea that trivial learning behaviors are the easiest to operationalize, hence the really outcomes of education will be under –emphasized. In addition, many people feel that pre-specification of precise objectives prevents the teacher from taking advantage of instructional opportunities occurring unexpectedly in the classroom. It has also been noted that outcomes other than behavior change are important in education.
Besides, experts argue that individuals are so different in acquiring learning a language, Nunan stresses this idea as follow “in terms of language teaching, an additional criticism relates to the creative nature of language proficiency… Proficient language users know multiple ways of achieving communicative ends through language, and therefore identifying objectives is a priori, or the standards which indicates how well the objectives has met, may be problematic, Another problem is that, taken to its logical conclusion, the approach spawns hundreds of detailed, micro-level performance statements. Finally, despite the emphasis on objectives in teacher education programs in the 1970, they failed to take root in teaching practice.
Frankly, Nunan in this quote represents the criticisms of Sheverson and Stern (1981) when both of them noticed that “teachers are trained to plan instruction by specifying behavioral objectives which this prescriptive model of planning may be one of the most consistently taught features of teacher education programs, the model is consistently not used in teachers planning model”.
The mentioned idea leds us to talk about the outcomes of education in this approach, it is obvious that objectives movement is a content- centered approach, in other words the most important goal of this method is to make students study the maximum of information in a total separation between theory/content and practice/situations in real life in learning and teaching foreign language, the basic established objective for learners is to study grammar, functions, vocabularies of the target language, which means to learn how language describes language itself but not to use it in a meaningful and real situations, that is to say ,communicate the foreign language.
Despite all these drawbacks, objectives or performances as known in the contemporary pedagogy are so important in teaching and learning a foreign language but what is worth to say is that the use of objectives in what is called performance-based teaching and competency-centered teaching is a part of it is not in the behaviorist meaning ,David Nunan explains this idea in his important article entitled “performance based approaches to the design of EFL instruction” (2002), “objectives, used appropriately, did bring tangible benefits to the learning process. In work cited in may 1988 book on curriculum, the use of objectives, when conveyed to learners in ways that made sense to them, played an important part in sensitizing learners to what it is to be a language learner in particular, learners come to have a more realistic idea of what would be seem as the gradual accretion of achievable goals. Learners developed greater sensitivity to their role as language learners and their vague notions of what is to be a learner became much sharper, self- evaluation became more feasible classroom activities could be seen to relate to real life needs.
Development of skills was seen as a gradual rather than all or nothing process.
However, Morocco has adopted competency –based approach instruction as an alternative to the use of objectives in teaching and learning foreign language in general and English in particular to modernize our educational system and ameliorate the level of students and motivate them to learn foreign languages.
This approach emerged for the first time in U.S.A during the seventies and was widely adopted in vocationally-oriented educations and in adult ESL program. By the end of eighties (CBA) had come to accepted as the state-of-the art approach to adult ESL by national policymakers and leaders in curriculum development (MATE news letter).
Many pedagogical experts developed (CBA) and improved it to take place in whole school levels not only in U.S but in all over the world, a development which based on the cognitive revolution leaded by Jean Piaget and Noam Chomsky.
(CBA) contains many significant terms which a good teacher should learn by heart with a Cary understanding in order to save himself from overlapping the constituents of (CBA) instruction that may affects his teaching tasks negatively.
Therefore differences were given to the term “competency” According to Mark Smith*, it is“the ability to do scouting to a prescribed standard” whereas, Larson** considers the term “competency as a minimal standards for particular transfer area”. Ahmed Shaaibi tries to combine many definitions in his article “CBA and SBE what, why and how?”As follow: “competency based education refers to a system of education in which a performance- based learning is sought.
(CBA) puts more focus on the outcomes of teaching operation” that is to say, combination of knowledge, understanding, experience and ability to prefer tasks in real life situations
Ahmed Shaibi, explains the difference between competencies and competences by saying “competency” differs from “competence”, the first are virtues and qualifications enabling the individual learner for real life tasks while the latter as abilities or skills to attained in gradual stages and different learning occasions” then, Ahmed Shaibi offers Smith definition which runs “competence and competences are broad capacities , in contrast competency (plural competencies) is narrower, more atomistic concept use to label particular abilities ….in this sense competency is not simply a skill but it is a virtue, a general sense of excellence and goodness. It involves being up to these tasks that life present us…..” in other words competences are the external outcomes of invisible competencies.
Above, I have given various definition to the term “competency” and similar notions, in this stage I will try to shed some light about the major characteristics of (CBA) in the following as presented by professor Ahmed Chaibi in his article “competency-based education: what, why, and how?”.
· -“CBA” specifies the skills needed by learners to function in areas of communication, technology, problem solving and interpersonal relationship”
· -“CBA” is not only concerned with what the learners know about language but what thy do with language.
· -“CBA” considers language as a tool for communication rather than a mere content to be mastered. It conceives of foreign language ability. For instance as skill rather than content.
In the other hand, competencies that may included in the school curriculum are various because it teaches in the whole aspects of learner’s personality, in this paragraph the focus will be on four types of competencies as cited by Abdelkader Cheddoudi : “teaching EFL through the CBA model by Abdelkader Cheddoudi/ MATE newsletter 2006 v26 (3,4):
· The social competencies: learners are recommended, through the medium of language, to get the appropriate social manner with speakers of the target language.
· The communicative competencies: which learners are supposed to acquire the foreign language to a prescribed acceptable standard to allow them to communicate fluently and appropriately?
· The intellectual competencies: learners are to develop high order thinking skills problem-solving strategy, and creative skills work.
· The methodological competencies: students– in breaf – should “learn how to learn” because (CBA) provides learners with opportunity to take more responsibility for their own learning.
To sum up competency-based teaching enhances critical thinking in EFL classes because it decreases the central of teachers and encourages the autonomy of learners in student and in student –teacher interaction.
The importance of English in the 21st century Morocco:
«….The improvement of the curricula, the pedagogical methods, the assessment and the orientation, the rehabilitation of school, as well as the reinforcement and the updating of the teaching of languages....»
Lately, the Moroccan government has offered more importance to teaching foreign languages in general and English in particular.
The white-book determines the headlines of the linguistic policy in the Moroccan educational system, in this paper the focus is going to be on the importance of teaching English in Morocco and what causes which convinces Moroccans to invest in this significant field?
Along decades the greatest effort of the ministry of education has been given to the improvement of teaching Arabic, the official language and the mother tongue of the most of Moroccans especially during eighties through the arabisation policy. frankly, French comes second because of many reasons, firstly, France is the first economic partner and the ex- colonizer of Morocco, this fact makes the political and economic Moroccan elite influenced by the french culture along generations. This reality imphasizes the status of French in the Moroccan linguistic landscape.
Recently, English is established as a foreign language to be studied at different levels of the and not only universities and high schools as happened in the past. Today teaching and learning English is an other duty given to the student along his educational life. But what is given to teaching and learning English does not come by chance but it is implied by various conditions inside and outside the country. For instance, the radical changes that occurs on the economic policy of Morocco since it was based on agriculture as a strategic plan for the establishment of a strong economy through producing a big amount of different sorts of food to encounter the increasing demands inside the country and exporting what is still to abroad to get the necessary industrial materials. Unfortunately Morocco fails to gain this kind of balance between the imported products and the exported food.
Many reasons were behind this failure, the change that affects the universal climate which makes Morocco receives small degrees of rain, therefore, the production decreases. Moreover, the price of food in the international market is lower if added to the sharp competition that Morocco faces from dozens powerful economies such as that of Spain or Tunisia are signaling that the economy is ill.
The elements motioned above implies a revision of all the strategic choices in economy to a new field which is considered to be appropriate and productive, it is tourism and other services linked to it such as crafts and tradition exhibitions. Morocco adopts a plan prepared by the ministry of tourism to have 10 millions of tourists from the four corners of the globe each year. Besides, the educational authorities have been mobilized to reform education to prepare the needed well-trained workers that is why the charter of education and training declares that schools and universities should be opened on their socioeconomic environment.
In the other hand, Morocco is ambitious to receive external capitals and companies from U.S.A and E.U to invest in the country in different domains after his agreement with «G.A.T .T agreement» in the year 1994 in Marrakech which allows productions and people transition freely without taxes.
No wonder, the most of tourists and investors whom Morocco invites and to whom Moroccans would like to expose the mountain ,the desert and even the shining sun as a special touristic production. No wonder 90% of them will not speak Arabic, Tamazight or even French, they are going to use «the lingua franca of today» which is English and more English, that is why I'm optimistic about the future of this language at least along an other century??
