COMMUNICATION:THE ENGLISH FUNCTIONS:
For Students:
These expressions in their variety are meant to help you enrich your spoken and written repertoire. It is not really a handicap to learn some of them by heart on condition that you frequently use them while talking to your classmates or friends or even some English-speaking people. Gradually those expressions become yours and you will use them normally and naturally. The more you practice them, the better you master them. Take it for granted that the language is first and foremost a means of communication. The more you practise it the more you become perfect. Finally, remember that the world would understand and appreciate what you say if you said it in the right way.
GIVING OPINION
• In my opinion the consequences of global warming will be fatal.
• As far as I'm concerned love is the noblest feeling.
• From my point of view, poverty could be fought with solidarity.
• As I see it, our planet is dying.
• I think / reckon / presume / gather it will get worse with time.
• In my view immigration is caused by unemployment. .
• It seems to me that democracy is the solution for developing countries.
• I believe politics should be more human...
• To my mind cloning should be restricted.
• According to me Euthanasia should be banned.
• As for me they like to be at top of the world.
Agreeing with an opinion :
• My view about this is positive.
• I agree with this idea.
• I agree completely with this idea.
• I can't agree more.
• I agree.
• This idea is absolutely right.
• I couldn't agree more on this.
Partial agreement or polite disagreement
• I agree partially with this idea.
• This idea is partially right.
• I see what you mean, but some developed countries are helpful.
• That's one way of looking at it, but we should avoid over generalisation.
• I see your point, but technology is not autonomous.
• I agree with you, but developing countries should stop wars.
• I think this idea is possible, but rich countries bear some responsibility in those wars.
• I'm not sure you're right there.
• I'm not sure that I agree with this idea.
Disagreeing with an opinion
•I think it is a bad idea.
• I'm afraid I can't agree with this idea.
• I'm afraid I entirely disagree with you.
• I think this idea is impossible.
• I guess this idea is impractical.
• I see that this idea is bad.
• I think it is a bad idea.
• I don't agree with this idea.
• I suppose this idea cannot be implemented.
A D V I C E:
Random Examples
• If I were you, I wouldn’t buy this old computer.
• Why don't you stay at home and watch TV?
• You'd better go to bed early.
• You ought to revise your lessons regularly.
• If you take my advice, you'll tell your parents the truth.
• You should drive slowly in town.
• I advise you to do the quiz again and again.
Declining to give advice:
• I don't know what to advise, I'm afraid.
• I wish I could suggest something, but I can't.
• I wish I could help.
• I'm afraid I can't really help you. I have the same problem myself.
Making suggestions
• Let’s revise our lessons.
• What about going to the cinema tonight?
• How about playing cards?
• Why don't we do our homework?
• Couldn't we invite your grandmother to our party?
• Shall we have a walk along the river?
• What would you say to a cup of coffee?
• Don't you think it is a good idea to watch TV?
• Does it matter if we use your car?
Accepting a suggestion:
• Ok. Yes, let's.
• Yes, I'd like to
• Yes, I'd love to.
• What a good idea!
• Why not?
• Yes, with pleasure.
• Yes, I feel like taking a walk.
Refusing a suggestion:
• No, let's not.
• No, I'd rather not.
• I don't feel like it.
• What an awful idea!
Thursday, January 7, 2010
Comma rules
Comma rules
We use commas in the following situations:
1. Items in series:
surprised, pleased, happy
Eat, drink and be merry.
2. Co-ordinate Adjectives:
a large, ugly snake
3. Nouns in Direct Address:
Please, Mum, can I go out?
Sally, what are we going to have?
4. Addresses:
Sherlock Holmes lived at 221b Baker Street, London.
5. Dates
I was born on November 23, 1975.
6. Interrupters:
Few people, however, have darkroom facilities for developing their own films.
7. Appositives and Non-restrictive clauses:
Mary, who used to work in London, sent me a letter.
8. Compound Sentences:
Americans use the word schedule instead of timetable, but Canadians usually use timetable.
Use a semi-colon when there is no conjunction:
Americans use the word schedule instead of timetable; Canadians usually use timetable.
9. Introductory Elements - adverbial clauses, participial phrases, prepositional phrases followed by an infinitive:
If someone makes a mistake, no one will know who did it!
Thinking he had drowned, we returned to our base.
No comma:
No one will know who did it if someone makes a mistake.
10. Quotations:
"I can take it home for dog," said the boy.
"I will come," she said, "when I am ready."
We use commas in the following situations:
1. Items in series:
surprised, pleased, happy
Eat, drink and be merry.
2. Co-ordinate Adjectives:
a large, ugly snake
3. Nouns in Direct Address:
Please, Mum, can I go out?
Sally, what are we going to have?
4. Addresses:
Sherlock Holmes lived at 221b Baker Street, London.
5. Dates
I was born on November 23, 1975.
6. Interrupters:
Few people, however, have darkroom facilities for developing their own films.
7. Appositives and Non-restrictive clauses:
Mary, who used to work in London, sent me a letter.
8. Compound Sentences:
Americans use the word schedule instead of timetable, but Canadians usually use timetable.
Use a semi-colon when there is no conjunction:
Americans use the word schedule instead of timetable; Canadians usually use timetable.
9. Introductory Elements - adverbial clauses, participial phrases, prepositional phrases followed by an infinitive:
If someone makes a mistake, no one will know who did it!
Thinking he had drowned, we returned to our base.
No comma:
No one will know who did it if someone makes a mistake.
10. Quotations:
"I can take it home for dog," said the boy.
"I will come," she said, "when I am ready."
Linking words
Linking words
1. Narrating
2. Contrast
3. Addiion
4. Expressing cause and effect
5. Expressing purpose
6. Giving examples
7. Summing up/Concluding
1. Narrating -
and
first (of all)
at first
at the beginning
in the beginning
then
next
before
after
after that
afterwards
when
while
soon
immediately
once
suddenly
as soon as
no sooner ... than ...
hardly ... when ...
finally
eventually
at the end
in the end
at last
2. Contrasting
but
however
although
despite
in spite of
nevertheless
on the contrary
on the one hand
on the other hand
whereas
while
for one thing
in contrast
3. Adding
also
as well as
besides
moreover
furthermore
what is more
in addition
not only ... but also ...
4. Expressing cause and result
because
because of
so
so ... that ...
such a ... that ...
as
since
therefore
thus
as a result
this is why
consequently
for this reason
too ... for/to ...
not enough ... for/to ...
due to
owing to
5. Expressing purpose
to
so as to
in order to
so that
for
6. Giving examples
for example
for instance
such as
7. Summing up/Concluding
all in all
overall
generally
in conclussion
on the whole
in the main
1. Narrating
2. Contrast
3. Addiion
4. Expressing cause and effect
5. Expressing purpose
6. Giving examples
7. Summing up/Concluding
1. Narrating -
and
first (of all)
at first
at the beginning
in the beginning
then
next
before
after
after that
afterwards
when
while
soon
immediately
once
suddenly
as soon as
no sooner ... than ...
hardly ... when ...
finally
eventually
at the end
in the end
at last
2. Contrasting
but
however
although
despite
in spite of
nevertheless
on the contrary
on the one hand
on the other hand
whereas
while
for one thing
in contrast
3. Adding
also
as well as
besides
moreover
furthermore
what is more
in addition
not only ... but also ...
4. Expressing cause and result
because
because of
so
so ... that ...
such a ... that ...
as
since
therefore
thus
as a result
this is why
consequently
for this reason
too ... for/to ...
not enough ... for/to ...
due to
owing to
5. Expressing purpose
to
so as to
in order to
so that
for
6. Giving examples
for example
for instance
such as
7. Summing up/Concluding
all in all
overall
generally
in conclussion
on the whole
in the main
HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
The Mixing Starts
When Julius Caesar, later to be Roman Emperor, invaded Britain in BC 54-5, the 'Celtic' tribes lived in the British Isles. Their Celtic languages still survive as 'Gaelic' in Scotland & Ireland, 'Welsh', in Wales, and 'Manx' in the Isle of Man, as well as 'Breton' in France. The Romans brought Latin to Britain, which was part of the Roman Empire for over 400 years. But early English did not develop mainly from Latin. So it is unlike French, Spanish and Italian, which did come directly from Latin. 'Early English' was the language of tribes who invaded from the East, from what is now Germany. They spoke different dialects of a 'Germanic' language, from which modern German developed. This explains why German and English are often similar, as many of their words developed from the same original language. In 878 AD, the Vikings invaded Britain from Scandinavia, bringing with them the Norse language, though this was similar to the old English or Anglo-Saxon language already used. The dramatic arrival of the Norman army from France, led by King William the Conqueror in 1066, and the defeat of the English King Harold at the Battle of Hastings, brought very big changes to English life. The Normans brought with them the Old French language, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business class.
No More Invasions
By about 1200, the Kingdoms of England and France had ceased to be one unit. The use of Old English came back, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English, the language of the poet Chaucer (about 1340-1400). He has been called the greatest English poet before Shakespeare. It is difficult for even English-speakers to read and understand his writings well. Can you understand these lines: "Whan that Aprille with his shoures swote The droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote..." In modern English this is: "When April with his sweet showers has struck to the roots the dryness of March.." ie, when the April showers of rain have gone right down to the roots of plants which have been dried up during March! This 'Middle English' was very different in different parts of the country, and of course travel was limited in those days. But another big revolution was coming - the printing press. Just as radio, television, video, and computers, have changed communication in our time, so did printing after about 1500 AD. Now there was a common language in print, as well as access to the old languages of Latin and Greek.
Shakespeare
Now came the 'Renaissance' in Europe - a time of great advance of learning and culture. By this time, English was not very different from the English used today. And the most famous person to write in English in this period was William Shakespeare (1564-1616). His insight into human nature, and his gift for using words, make him possibly the most famous playwright of all time! Having in his hands such a new rich language must have helped him too. Shakespeare gave the English language many phrases and sayings, which English speakers still use every day. Often, they do not realise these words came from Shakespeare's plays or poems! Do you know some of these?: 'A rose by any other name would smell as sweet' "If music be the food of love, play on and give me excess." (12th Night) "Of one who loved not wisely but too well." (Othello) "All our yesterdays.." "Out, out brief candle." (MacBeth) "To be or not to be......"
The Best seller of all time
At almost the same time as Shakespeare, came the printing of a book which has had an even greater effect on society and culture - the 'Authorised' or 'King James' translation of the Bible in 1611. For almost the first time, anyone who could read had access to the Bible in their own language, and in words which were easily understood. The beauty of the language in this translation has never been equalled. Though today, because language has changed, it is difficult in places to understand, even for native English speakers, many people still use it. And like Shakespeare, many phrases and quotations from it have become part of the English language. People often use them without knowing they come from the Bible. For example: 'turn the other cheek' 'go a second mile' 'Straight and narrow' 'A Job's comforter' 'Don't cast your pearls before swine' 'the love of money is the root of all evil'
Modern English
Since the time of Shakespeare, English has continued to change. Settlers from Britain moved across the world - to the USA, Australia, New Zealand, India, Asia and Africa, and in each place, the language changed and developed, and took in words from other local languages. For example, 'kangaroo' and 'boomerang' are native Australian Aborigine words, 'juggernaut' and 'turban' came from India. With the increase in communication, travel, radio and television, all these different types of English have mixed. So in Britain now, because of American and Australian TV programming, we use many parts of Australian and American English. And words from many other languages - French, German, Spanish, Arabic, even Nepali - have been borrowed. So English continues to change and develop, with hundreds of new words arriving every year. For better or worse, it has truly become the world's international language.It has become the language of science, air traffic control, the world of computers, and most of the Internet. And in many countries, where there are other competing languages and people groups, English has been chosen as a common second language. This has happened in Nigeria and Ghana. This may not seem fair to other important and valuable languages which are also international! For example, those of us who know and love France, realise that the French regret the way their language may not be so much of an international language as it used to be. And it is sad that English people are often lazy, and don't bother to learn other languages! So, for many jobs and situations, English has become an essential gateway. If you are learning it - best wishes and we hope you enjoy it!
When Julius Caesar, later to be Roman Emperor, invaded Britain in BC 54-5, the 'Celtic' tribes lived in the British Isles. Their Celtic languages still survive as 'Gaelic' in Scotland & Ireland, 'Welsh', in Wales, and 'Manx' in the Isle of Man, as well as 'Breton' in France. The Romans brought Latin to Britain, which was part of the Roman Empire for over 400 years. But early English did not develop mainly from Latin. So it is unlike French, Spanish and Italian, which did come directly from Latin. 'Early English' was the language of tribes who invaded from the East, from what is now Germany. They spoke different dialects of a 'Germanic' language, from which modern German developed. This explains why German and English are often similar, as many of their words developed from the same original language. In 878 AD, the Vikings invaded Britain from Scandinavia, bringing with them the Norse language, though this was similar to the old English or Anglo-Saxon language already used. The dramatic arrival of the Norman army from France, led by King William the Conqueror in 1066, and the defeat of the English King Harold at the Battle of Hastings, brought very big changes to English life. The Normans brought with them the Old French language, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business class.
No More Invasions
By about 1200, the Kingdoms of England and France had ceased to be one unit. The use of Old English came back, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English, the language of the poet Chaucer (about 1340-1400). He has been called the greatest English poet before Shakespeare. It is difficult for even English-speakers to read and understand his writings well. Can you understand these lines: "Whan that Aprille with his shoures swote The droghte of Marche hath perced to the rote..." In modern English this is: "When April with his sweet showers has struck to the roots the dryness of March.." ie, when the April showers of rain have gone right down to the roots of plants which have been dried up during March! This 'Middle English' was very different in different parts of the country, and of course travel was limited in those days. But another big revolution was coming - the printing press. Just as radio, television, video, and computers, have changed communication in our time, so did printing after about 1500 AD. Now there was a common language in print, as well as access to the old languages of Latin and Greek.
Shakespeare
Now came the 'Renaissance' in Europe - a time of great advance of learning and culture. By this time, English was not very different from the English used today. And the most famous person to write in English in this period was William Shakespeare (1564-1616). His insight into human nature, and his gift for using words, make him possibly the most famous playwright of all time! Having in his hands such a new rich language must have helped him too. Shakespeare gave the English language many phrases and sayings, which English speakers still use every day. Often, they do not realise these words came from Shakespeare's plays or poems! Do you know some of these?: 'A rose by any other name would smell as sweet' "If music be the food of love, play on and give me excess." (12th Night) "Of one who loved not wisely but too well." (Othello) "All our yesterdays.." "Out, out brief candle." (MacBeth) "To be or not to be......"
The Best seller of all time
At almost the same time as Shakespeare, came the printing of a book which has had an even greater effect on society and culture - the 'Authorised' or 'King James' translation of the Bible in 1611. For almost the first time, anyone who could read had access to the Bible in their own language, and in words which were easily understood. The beauty of the language in this translation has never been equalled. Though today, because language has changed, it is difficult in places to understand, even for native English speakers, many people still use it. And like Shakespeare, many phrases and quotations from it have become part of the English language. People often use them without knowing they come from the Bible. For example: 'turn the other cheek' 'go a second mile' 'Straight and narrow' 'A Job's comforter' 'Don't cast your pearls before swine' 'the love of money is the root of all evil'
Modern English
Since the time of Shakespeare, English has continued to change. Settlers from Britain moved across the world - to the USA, Australia, New Zealand, India, Asia and Africa, and in each place, the language changed and developed, and took in words from other local languages. For example, 'kangaroo' and 'boomerang' are native Australian Aborigine words, 'juggernaut' and 'turban' came from India. With the increase in communication, travel, radio and television, all these different types of English have mixed. So in Britain now, because of American and Australian TV programming, we use many parts of Australian and American English. And words from many other languages - French, German, Spanish, Arabic, even Nepali - have been borrowed. So English continues to change and develop, with hundreds of new words arriving every year. For better or worse, it has truly become the world's international language.It has become the language of science, air traffic control, the world of computers, and most of the Internet. And in many countries, where there are other competing languages and people groups, English has been chosen as a common second language. This has happened in Nigeria and Ghana. This may not seem fair to other important and valuable languages which are also international! For example, those of us who know and love France, realise that the French regret the way their language may not be so much of an international language as it used to be. And it is sad that English people are often lazy, and don't bother to learn other languages! So, for many jobs and situations, English has become an essential gateway. If you are learning it - best wishes and we hope you enjoy it!
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